Unstructured problems

Practitioners from the policy sciences have made a case for rethinking the risk management strategy and the subsequent role of science and expertise in complex (unstructured) issues, which shares important notions with the post-normal science concept. The science-policy interface has different arrangements in practice because not all problems have the same characteristics. Douglas and Wildavsky (1982), Hoppe and Peterse (1993), Hisschemöller and Hoppe (1995) have pointed out that in every societal problem, two heterogeneous elements are linked to each other: normative elements (norms, values principles, ideals, goals) and situations or empirical elements or facts. Regarding values and norms, one can distinguish between converging and diverging views among stakeholders. Similarly, the perception of existing and expected situations can be based on weakly or well-established knowledge domains. This typology results in the four categories of risk management problems (Hisschemöller, 1993; Hisschemöller et al., 1997)  given in the figure below. 

It distinguishes between structured, moderately structured and unstructured problems, depending on the certainty in the available (relevant) knowledge and the (dis)agreement on norms and values that are at stake. Each of these types is associated with different political styles (‘policy politics’) and with different styles of providing policy advice.  Note that the typical roles of science given in the figure are the roles observed by Hisschemöller et al. in their comparative study of actual risk management problems. These roles are not prescriptive.

Post normal problems clearly are of the unstructured type (uncertain and provisional knowledge; values in dispute). In the literature it is widely acknowledged that - form a policy perspective - unstructured problems can best be tackled by a learning strategy which is called problem structuring (Hisschemöller and Hoppe, 1995, Dunn, 1997).

Problem structuring is that phase in the process of inquiry in which planners and policy analysts search among and evaluate competing problem representations. Problem structuring is so important because we seem to fail more often because we solve the wrong problem than because we get the wrong solution to the right problem (Dunn, 1997).

Problem structuring affects all phases of the risk management process, including risk assessment. Problem structuring requires political participation of actors with different views on the problem, and an argued political problem choice. Problem structuring is a learning process characterized by confrontation of a multitude of different viewpoints, a high level of public participation and equality among actors. Most crucial to an appreciation of the issue of problem definition is the view that problems are not objective entities in their own right 'out there' to be detected as such, but are rather the product of imposing certain frames of reference on reality (Dery, 1984). The learning process evolves around the production of political choice.

References
Dery, D. (1984). Problem Definition in Policy Analysis, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.

Dunn, W.N. (1997). Cognitive Impairment and Social Problem Solving: Some Tests for Type III Errors in Policy Analysis. Pittsburgh: Graduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh.

Hisschemöller, M. (1993). De democratie van problemen, de relatie tussen de inhoud van beleidsproblemen en methoden van politieke besluitvorming. Amsterdam: VU-Uitgeverij.

Hisschemöller, M. and Hoppe, R. (1995). Coping with Intractable Controversies: The Case for Problem Structuring in Policy Design and Analysis. Knowledge and Policy: The International Journal of Knowledge Transfer and Utilization 8, (4): 40-60.

Hoppe, R., and Peterse, A. (1993). Handling Frozen Fire: Political culture and risk management. Oxford: Westview Press.

J.P. van der Sluijs (2001), Integrated Assessment Models and the Participatory Challenge The case of Climate Change. In: Dunn, William N.; Hisschemoller, Matthijs; Hoppe, Rob; Ravetz, Jerry R., Knowledge, Power, and Participation in Environmental Policy Analysis, special issue Policy Studies Review Annual, Transaction Pub, 2001, p317-348